Parenting

Attachment Theory

Attachment refers to the emotional bond established between one individual and another, typically characterized by a dependency on a particular caregiver and a search for comfort from them. The concept of attachment theory originated with British psychologist and psychiatrist John Bowlby, who found inspiration in the monkey experiments of American psychologist Harry Harlow. Bowlby suggested that the relationship between children and their caregivers is crucial for a child's psychological, emotional, and social development.

The formation of attachment relationships usually occurs during early infancy, with caregivers often being the child's parents or other primary guardians. The quality of the attachment relationship profoundly impacts the growth and development of the child. Research has found that secure, stable attachment bonds help children build self-confidence and a sense of security, handle stress better, and show improved adaptability in social interactions.

Harlow's Monkey Experiments

During the 1950s and 1960s, Harry Harlow conducted a series of experiments with monkeys to study the formation of mother-infant attachment and the effects of love and security on animal development, which became known as "Harry Harlow's monkey experiments."

Experiment 1: Motherless Monkeys

In the "Motherless Monkeys" experiment, Harlow separated newborn monkeys from their mothers, allowing them to grow up without maternal companionship. The goal was to study the effects of maternal separation on monkeys' behavior and psychological development. The results revealed significant abnormalities in behavior and psychology compared to monkeys raised with their mothers. The motherless monkeys displayed increased fear, anxiety, aggression, and social isolation.

Experiment 2: Cloth and Wire Mothers

Harlow introduced two surrogate mothers to these motherless monkeys. One was a "wire mother" made of metal that provided milk; the other was a "cloth mother" made of soft fabric that resembled a real mother but did not provide milk. Observing the monkeys' choices and behaviors between these two surrogates, Harlow discovered that even though the wire mother provided milk, the monkeys preferred to establish an attachment relationship with the cloth mother. When the monkeys were frightened or uneasy, they sought comfort from the cloth mother, not the wire one. This demonstrated that emotions and a sense of security are more vital to monkeys than material aspects such as food and nourishment. At a time when behaviorism dominated psychology, these findings were startling, as the behaviorist theory would suggest a deeper bond with the wire mother due to the reward of milk, a natural reinforcement. Yet, the results showed that attachment is not necessarily based on material needs but on comfort and tender feelings.

Harlow's work highlighted the significance of mother-infant attachment relationships for the psychological and behavioral development in animals, including humans. Maternal separation could lead to psychological and behavioral issues. The need for love and safety is crucial for the development of animals, sometimes even more than material needs, leading them to establish attachment relationships with sources of comfort and security.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

John Bowlby developed attachment theory inspired by Harlow's findings. Children have an innate need to establish emotional bonds with their caregivers, which is vital for their survival and development. Bowlby believed this need was a primary drive for survival, traceable to our evolutionary history. In human evolution, stable emotional relationships with caregivers increased children's chances of survival, making this trait persistent in our genes.

The emotional connection between a child and caregiver is a fundamental biological need, as critical as hunger or thirst. Both infant animals and caregivers possess innate automatic mechanisms that facilitate attachment. For instance, adults generally find baby animals adorable, increasing our willingness to love, protect, and care for them, thus enhancing their survival chances. Additionally, adults are innately disturbed by a baby's cry, prompting them to address the underlying issues threatening the baby's well-being, like hunger, discomfort, or illness.

A child's psychological and social development is also significantly affected by their attachment relationships. A stable, secure attachment helps children develop self-esteem and security, cope better with stress, and exhibit superior social adaptability. The formation of an attachment is influenced by the caregiver's behavior, such as their sensitivity, responsiveness, and the home environment.

Bowlby's attachment theory has deeply impacted psychology and education, particularly in child psychotherapy, family therapy, and early education. It reminds us of the importance of establishing stable, secure attachments for children's growth and development. Caregivers must recognize children's needs promptly and provide consistent, regular care to help them build a healthy psychological and emotional foundation.

Ainsworth's Contributions

Following Harlow and Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, an American developmental psychologist, made significant contributions to the refinement and expansion of attachment theory. Renowned for her cross-cultural research in Uganda and the United States, she observed children and caregiver interactions in daily life, detailing attachment behaviors to classify attachment styles. Ainsworth innovated the "strange situation procedure," a research method assessing children's attachment types, involving eight brief separation and reunion episodes to observe children's behavior and assess their attachment types. This method has become a standard assessment tool in attachment research.

The Strange Situation is a controlled observational procedure developed by psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the late 1960s to assess attachment styles in young children. It was designed to examine the quality of attachment between a child and their caregiver (typically the mother). Through this procedure, Ainsworth identified three main types of attachment: secure, anxious-ambivalent (also known as anxious-resistant), and avoidant. A fourth style, disorganized, was later recognized by researchers Main and Solomon.

The Strange Situation procedure follows a specific pattern:

The Strange Situation Steps

Before the Strange Situation itself, the researchers establish a baseline of the child's behavior by observing the child's interaction with their caregiver in a natural setting.

1. Introduction to the Room: The caregiver and child enter an unfamiliar playroom.
2. Settling In: The caregiver and child are left alone, and the child is free to explore the environment with the caregiver present as a secure base.
3. Stranger's Entry: A stranger enters the room, talks with the caregiver, and gradually attempts to interact with the child. This tests the child's response to a stranger while the caregiver is present, which is indicative of the child's sense of safety.
4. First Separation: The caregiver leaves the room, leaving the child alone with the stranger. This elicits the child’s reactions to separating from their secure base.
5. Reunion and Stranger Departure: The caregiver returns, offering comfort and reassurance as needed, and the stranger leaves. This phase is crucial for assessing how the child re-establishes connection with the caregiver—known as reunion behavior.
6. Second Separation: The caregiver leaves the room again, leaving the child completely alone, heightening the child’s separation anxiety.
7. Stranger's Return: The stranger enters again to offer comfort and assess how the child responds to a non-caregiver in times of stress.
8. Second Reunion: The caregiver comes back into the room and greets the child. The interaction is observed to further assess reunion behavior and attachment.

The primary purpose of Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiment was to observe and assess the attachment styles between infants and their caregivers. It aimed to understand how infants react when they are briefly separated from and then reunited with their primary caregiver within an unfamiliar environment. Through this observation, Ainsworth aimed to classify different attachment patterns. This experiment helps psychologists comprehend the nature of the bond between infants and caregivers and how this early relationship influences the child's emotional and social development.

4 Attachment Styles

• Secure Attachment: Securely attached children are upset when the caregiver leaves but are happy to see the caregiver return, quickly comforted, and return to playing. They use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore their environment.
  • Trust: Believing that caregivers can meet their needs.
  • Self-confidence: Showing confidence when exploring the environment and interacting with others.
  • Emotional regulation: Coping better with stress and recovering emotions with the support of caregivers.
  • Social skills: Demonstrating better adaptability in interpersonal interactions, making it easier to build friendships.
• Insecure attachments
  • Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment(抗拒型): Anxious-ambivalent children are extremely distressed when the caregiver leaves. Upon the caregiver's return, they seek comfort but also resist it, displaying mixed emotions and behaviors, such as clinging and pushing away.
    • Insecurity: Doubting the reliability of caregivers, often fearing abandonment.
    • Overdependence: Possibly relying excessively on caregivers, having a strong need for their attention and support.
    • Emotional fluctuations: Being highly influenced by external factors, prone to becoming anxious, tense, or excited.
    • Social difficulties: Exhibiting either excessive reliance or resistance in social interactions, facing challenges in forming relationships.
  • Avoidant Attachment(迴避型): Avoidant children do not appear too distressed by the caregiver's departure and often avoid the caregiver upon their return, showing little emotional response and instead focusing on play or interacting with the stranger.
    • Detachment: Behaving distantly and independently in front of caregivers, avoiding expressing needs to them.
    • Over-independence: Emphasizing one's independence excessively, refusing help and support from others.
    • Emotional suppression: Suppressing emotional needs, struggling to express genuine feelings.
    • Social barriers: Displaying aloofness and distance in interpersonal relationships, finding it difficult to establish intimacy.
  • Disorganized Attachment: This later added category describes children who exhibit confused or contradictory behaviors upon the caregiver’s return, such as approaching the caregiver while avoiding eye contact, or freezing in place. Disorganized attachment is often associated with the most adverse developmental outcomes.
    • Chaotic behavior: Displaying unpredictable and incomprehensible behavior in front of caregivers, seeking attention while resisting intimacy.
    • Failure to establish trust: Inability to trust caregivers, possibly both relying on and fearing them.
    • Emotional imbalance: Difficulty regulating emotions, showing extreme emotional reactions.
    • Social issues: Exhibiting unstable and chaotic behavior in social interactions, facing considerable difficulty in forming relationships.

The Strange Situation has been influential in understanding child development, and the attachment styles identified have been linked to later emotional and social behaviors. However, it's important to remember that the procedure reflects a snapshot of the attachment relationship in a specific context and may not capture the full complexity of child-caregiver bonds.

Criticisms and Controversies

As someone passionate about psychology, I find Bowlby's attachment theory enlightening, as it draws attention to the importance of early emotional bonds. It underscores the notion that emotional care is just as vital as physical care in nurturing well-rounded humans. It's reassuring that through understanding this theory, caregivers and educators can create supportive environments to foster secure attachments, potentially enriching countless lives. However, it is always good to understand the blindspot of this theory as no theory can be unbeatable. Below are the areas that people criticise the most.

• Overemphasis on Mothers: One criticism of attachment theory is its initial overemphasis on the role of the mother or a single primary caregiver. Modern research and family dynamics suggest that children can form secure attachments with multiple caregivers, including fathers, grandparents, and childcare providers.
• Cultural Considerations: Some argue that Bowlby's theory may lack cultural sensitivity, as it was primarily based on research within Western societies. Different cultures have diverse child-rearing practices that may challenge the universality of the attachment styles outlined by Ainsworth.
• Nature Versus Nurture Debate: Attachment theory sometimes faces scrutiny over the nature versus nurture debate. Critics may point out that the theory might downplay the role of genetic factors or innate temperament in a child's behavior and the development of attachment.
• Deterministic implications: Critics argue that the theory may imply that early experiences are all-determining and overshadow the capacity for change and resilience throughout life. However, many supporters of attachment theory acknowledge that with intervention, support and experience, it’s possible to develop "earned secure attachment" later in life.

In conclusion, while critiques are essential for the advancement of knowledge, attachment theory remains a vital framework for understanding the formative relationships of our early years and its enduring influence on our lives. It is an area that continues to evolve with ongoing research and new insights into the intricate dynamics of human development and emotional connections.

Practical

How to Praise

• "Wow, you got such a high score on your exam, you're really smart!"
• "My son has talent like me, so he was able to take first place in the swimming competition!"
• "He's naturally meant to be a mathematician, just look at the great scores he gets on his math exams!"

Do these statements sound familiar? Did you hear them when you were a child, or have you heard others use them to praise their children, students, or protégés recently? When we praise others, we tend to focus on so-called innate, fixed traits, such as intelligence, talent, and aptitude. While our intentions are good—aiming to boost their confidence—parents praise their kids for being "smart," teachers praise their students for being "talented," and coaches say to their athletes, "You were born to be a basketball player." However, it turns out that praising in this way can have profoundly negative effects on a person.

Renowned psychologist Carol Dweck's series of studies tells us that when we praise people based on their innate, unchangeable traits (like being smart or talented), it's true that their confidence may initially increase. But if they continue to receive this kind of praise, they could start to limit themselves to easy tasks to maintain the image of being "smart and talented" in front of others. By comfortably enjoying success in their comfort zone, they continue to receive others' admiration, but they won't challenge themselves or venture into more difficult areas. They aren't sure if they can maintain the image of "talented and smart" in these tougher arenas. People with this fixed mindset fear failure because it could mean losing praise based on their innate, unchangeable traits.

So, how should we praise our children, students, or juniors then? Recognize the effort they put into the process, letting them know that it is the effort you value, not some so-called natural ability. Praising their effort can help them to not be afraid of failure, because effort in the process means either "effort made" or "insufficient effort (wrong approach)," without a strict dichotomy of success and failure. This encourages them to enjoy challenges, to take pleasure in exerting greater effort within those challenges, and not to be satisfied with just succeeding in their comfort zones. Instead, they aim to continually challenge the unknown. They will be brave and fearless because they enjoy putting in the effort, facing difficulties, and the demand for effort that arises from those difficulties. Their focus is on daily progress, not on mere success or failure. This approach is vital for fostering a growth mindset.

So, don't say: "You were just born a success."

Instead, say: "I'm proud of the effort you've put into the process of achieving success."

Zone of Proximal Development (不要揠苗助長)

Teaching children using scaffolding within Lev Vygotsky's theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) involves a series of instructional strategies intended to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. Here's a step-by-step guide to using scaffolding with the ZPD:

• Initial Preparation and Understanding
  • Assess the Child's Current Level: Before scaffolding can be provided, you need to understand what the child already knows (their actual development level) and what they're capable of learning with assistance (their potential development level within the ZPD).
  • Identify the ZPD: The ZPD is the difference between what a child can do without help and what they can do with help. For scaffolding to be effective, the learning task should be within the child’s ZPD.
  • Set Learning Goals: Clearly define the new skill or concept you want the child to learn, ensuring that the goals are challenging yet attainable with help.
• Task Breakdown and Engagement
  • Break Down the Task: Split the task into smaller, more manageable parts. This could mean segmenting a complex task into sequential steps that the child can follow easily.
  • Engage in Joint Activities: Initially engage in the task with the child. This might involve working together on a math problem, reading a text aloud, or constructing something physically. Your active participation provides a model for the child to imitate.
• Providing Support and Progression [Important]
  • Use Scaffolds: Provide assistance through various scaffolds. This could be in the form of hints, questions, modeling the task, providing cues, or using prompts. For instance, if the child is learning to add numbers, you might first demonstrate how to add using physical objects like blocks, then guide the child to try with your help.
  • Encourage Independence: As the child starts to grasp the concept or skill, gradually reduce the level of support. This could involve asking the child to attempt the next step on their own or to explain back to you what they're doing and why.
• Monitoring and Application
  • Monitor and Adjust: Keep a close eye on the child’s progress. If they struggle, increase the support again to avoid frustration. If they excel, offer new challenges to continue their development.
  • Practice and Apply: Allow the child multiple opportunities to practice and apply the new skill or knowledge in different contexts to ensure a deeper understanding and the ability to generalize the skill.
• Reflection and Transition to Independence
  • Reflect and Review: Encourage the child to reflect on what they have learned and how they have achieved it. This process cements the learning and enables the child to become more conscious of their own learning strategies.
  • Fade the Support: Continue to reduce assistance over time until the child is able to complete the task independently. This is the ultimate goal of using scaffolding within the ZPD - to bring the child from dependence to independence.

Throughout this process, the role of the adult or more knowledgeable other is crucial. They provide the necessary support at each stage and are responsive to the child's needs, adjusting their level of assistance based on the child's performance. By doing so, they truly operationalize the principle of scaffolding within Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development.